cozby - methods in behavioral research - 11e, 0078035155 SM and tb
Instructor's Manual
to Accompany
Methods in Behavioral Research
Eleventh Edition
Paul C. Cozby
Prepared by
Martha Hubertz
Florida Atlantic University
Mitchell Okada
Claire C. Palmerino
Paul C. Cozby
California State University, Fullerton
Jeanne C. King
California State University, San Bernardino
Contents
INTRODUCTION
PART I: LEARNING OBJECTIVES, EXTENDED OUTLINE, LABS AND ACTIVITIES, DISCUSSION TOPICS, AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Chapter 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
Laboratory Demonstration: The False Consensus Effect
Laboratory Demonstration: Single versus Multiple Observations
Activity: Observing Behavior
Activity: Setting up a Research News Group
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answer for Activity Questions
Chapter 2: Where to Start
Activity: Psychological Abstracts
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answer for Activity Questions
Chapter 3: Ethical Research
Activity: Discussion of Ethical Issues
Activity: Films to Illustrate Ethical Issues
Activity: IRB Decisions
Activity: Search for News Articles on Scientific Ethics
Activity: Plagiarism and Research Fraud
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 4: Studying Behavior
Laboratory Demonstration: Relationships among Variables
Laboratory Demonstration: Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods
Activity: Developing Operational Definitions of Variables
Activity: Research Programs in the Department
Activity: Reading a Journal Article
Activity: Identifying and Operationally Defining Variables
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 5: Measurement Concepts
Laboratory Demonstration: Reliability
Activity: Reliability and Validity
Activity: Identifying Measurement Scales
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 6: Observational Methods
Laboratory Demonstration: Systematic Observation
Activity: Observational Methods in a Bar
Activity: Survey Archives
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 7: Asking People About Themselves: Survey Research
Laboratory Demonstration: Writing Survey Questions
Activity: Visit to a Survey Research Center
Activity: Surveys in the Media and on the Internet
Article in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 8: Experimental Design
Laboratory Demonstration: Hemispheric Specialization
Laboratory Demonstration: Taste Test
Activity: Confounding
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 9: Conducting Experiments
Activity: Data Collection for Later Analysis
Activity: Data from Personal Ads
Activity: Participating in Experiments On-line
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 10: Complex Experimental Designs
Laboratory Demonstration: Proactive Inhibition
Activity: Identifying Factorial Designs
Activity: Outcomes of Factorial Designs
Article in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 11: Single Case, Quasi-Experimental and Developmental Research
Laboratory Demonstration: Regression Toward the Mean
Laboratory Demonstration: Effect of a Sign on Behavior
Activity: Self-Directed Behavior Change
Article in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 12: Understanding Research Results: Description and Correlation
Laboratory Demonstration: Correlation Coefficients
Activity: Describing and Visualizing Correlation Coefficients
Activity: Identifying Descriptive Statistics
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answer for Activity Questions
Chapter 13: Understanding Research Results: Statistical Inference
Laboratory Demonstration: Sampling Distribution of the Mean
Laboratory Demonstration: Type I and Type II Errors
Activity: Type I and Type II Errors
Activity: Inferential Statistics Films/Videos
Activity: Selecting Statistical Tests
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answers for Activity Questions
Chapter 14: Generalizing Results
Activity: Discussion of Gender and Cultural Issues
Activity: Search for Research on Gender and Ethnicity
Articles in the Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods
Sample Answer for Activity Questions
Appendix A: Writing Research Reports
Activity: APA Style on the World Wide Web
Appendix B: Statistical Tests
Activity: Statistical Analyses with Computers
Appendix C: Statistical Tables
Activity: Statistical Analyses with Critical Values
PART II: Handouts
Handout 1: Reading a Research Article
Handout 2: Hypothesis and Operational Definition Exercise
Handout 3: Confounding Variables
Handout 4: Design Identification
Handout 5: Outcomes of Factorial Designs
Handout 6: Describing Correlation Coefficients
Handout 7: Statistical Decisions
Introduction
We hope that you and your students will enjoy teaching and learning about research methods using Methods in Behavioral Research. The instructor's manual provides you with some additional tools to help with your class. The manual is organized in two parts: 1) learning objectives, detailed chapter outline, labs and activities, discussion topics and suggested readings and 2) handouts. These are described below.
Part I: Extended Chapter Outline, Labs and Activities and Discussion Topics
The first part of the manual contains the learning objectives for the chapter as well as a detailed chapter outline. This can be used in adjunct with power points to aid you in prepping the class. This material is taken largely directly from the text so you can rest assured that the material is in the current edition of the text. It also includes possible discussion topics and recommended readings that can be used for your own information or possible assignments in some cases. It also includes a number of suggestions for laboratory projects, activities that can be conducted in class, and possible homework assignments.
We have deliberately designed the activities so that they require a minimum amount of equipment and other costly items, and we did not assume that your students have access to a large participant pool. Some may require one or two lab periods to complete, while others may be completed during a regular class period. Most of the projects can be conducted by students working in groups; this can be a particularly valuable learning experience for students. The projects we describe are relatively brief and are linked with concepts covered in the book. Many instructors may wish to create longer projects that will require a literature search, hypothesis generation, data collection and analysis, and a report in APA style. A number of the projects we describe can be adapted for such in-depth research investigations.
You may wish to have students design and conduct their own investigations. If you do so, constantly remind students of this requirement and try to make your class and lab exercises relevant to the student research project. Material that may be helpful to you in planning for the student projects is listed in Chapter 9 of Part I.
In addition to the activities that we have designed, we also list articles from the journal Teaching of Psychology and an excellent resource for instructors of methods classes, the second edition of Handbook for Teaching Statistics and Research Methods by Mark E. Ware and Charles L. Brewer (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Ware and Brewer have compiled articles on teaching statistics and methods that were published in the journal Teaching of Psychology. Most articles describe a lab or class exercise that is effective in demonstrating a particular concept or experimental procedure. Many concepts not included in our demonstrations are addressed in this book. We have listed titles of articles relevant to each chapter in the text, along with the author and page numbers of each article. Additional recommended resources are also included.
Also included are sample answers to some of the activity questions listed at the end of each chapter. Key points that should be included for a good answer are highlighted.
Part II: Handouts
The second part of the instructor's manual contains suggested handouts for homework assignments or small group activities. The nature of the assignments is discussed in Part I of the manual. We hope you will find the handouts useful and that you can easily adapt them for your particular class.
Methods in Behavioral Research Web Sites
There are two web resources for the book: one is located at www.mhhe.com/cozby10e the other at http://methods.fullerton.edu/.
The McGraw-Hill web site contains additional free resources for students and instructors, including a study guide, password-protected test bank questions, PowerPoint presentations, and research links. In addition, there are course management opportunities available through WebCT, Blackboard, or PageOut.
The Fullerton web site also contains web pages that list resources available on the Internet for every chapter in the book. Some of the resources are most useful for students who want to explore a particular topic from a different perspective. Other resources will be most useful for instructors to enrich lectures or class activities.
When you go to the Fullerton site, you will see a list of chapters and headings describing the resources available. Take 30 minutes or so to go to each chapter and sample some of the resources available. Warning: don’t go too deep into the wealth of information you may discover. Remember, your goal is to find out what resources are available at the methods.fullerton.edu site.
Be sure to put both web addresses in your class syllabus. Students often write me to say that they found a site on their own and had been glad to use a resource they discovered there. To make sure that your students actually go to the site, design an assignment requiring students to use resources on the site. Here’s a sample that uses some of the materials in Chapters 1 and 2:
§ What are attitudes 1, 6, 9, and 10 of the “Twenty Science Attitudes”?
§ What does the American Psychological Association conclude about the effects of television violence on children?
§ What is the Summer Science Institute for psychology majors?
§ Describe APA divisions 3, 4, 7, and 21.
§ What are the combined effects of alcohol and smoking on Peeps?
As you progress through the course, remind students that additional information is available at these sites. Design individual or group exercises that may not take much time but can lead to interesting discussions. For example, students can take part in on-line experiments and report their experiences (see the activity in chapter 9). Make sure that students know about the APA style resources available on the Web as well.
Dr. Cozby's computer mail address is cozby@fullerton.edu. Dr. Okada's computer mail address is mokada@fullerton.edu. The postal address is the Department of Psychology, California State University, Fullerton, CA 92834-6846. Please feel free to send notes, comments, questions, and suggestions.
Acknowledgments
This manual is the result of the valuable input of many individuals. We particularly thank Helene Custer and Felice W. Gordis, former colleagues who assisted in the preparation of previous editions of the manual. We also thank the many students who helped refine the activities and multiple-choice questions that we have used in our classes. The people at McGraw-Hill also provided support and assistance throughout this project. We especially thank Mike Sugarman, our editor, and the editorial team who managed the transition into production, and the rest of the production team for bringing this manual to completion.
Part I
Chapter 1: Scientific Understanding of Behavior
LEARINING OBJECTIVES
- Explain the reasons for understanding research methods.
- Describe the scientific approach to learning about behavior and contrast it with pseudoscientific research.
- Define and give examples of the four goals of scientific research: description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation of behavior.
- Discuss the three elements for inferring causation: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations.
- Define and describe basic and applied research.
BRIEF CHAPTER OUTLINE
Use of Research Methods
The Scientific Approach
The Limitations of Intuition and Authority
Intuition
Authority
Skepticism, Science and the Empirical Approach
Integrating Intuition, Skepticism, and Authority
Goals of Behavioral Science
Description of Behavior
Prediction of Behavior
Determining the causes of Behavior
Explaining Behavior
Basic and Applied Research
Basic Research
Applied Research
Comparing Basic and Applied Research
EXTENDED CHAPTER OUTLINE
Please note that much of this information is quoted from the text.
Use of Research Methods
I. The Scientific Approach
Many occupations require the use of research findings. For example, mental health professionals must make decisions about treatment methods, assignment of clients to different types of facilities, medications, and testing procedures. Such decisions are made on the basis of research; to make good decisions, mental health professionals must be able to read the research literature in the field and apply it in their professional lives.
A. The Limitations of Intuition and Authority
1. Intuition
o When you rely on intuition, you accept unquestioningly what your own personal judgment or a single story about one person’s experience tells you. The intuitive approach takes many forms. Often, it involves finding an explanation for our own behaviors or the behaviors of others. For example, you might develop an explanation for why you keep having conflicts with your roommate, such as “he hates me” or “having to share a bathroom creates conflict.”
o A problem with intuition is that numerous cognitive and motivational biases affect our perceptions, and so we may draw erroneous conclusions about cause and effect.
o An example could be the illusory correlation where people believe there is a causal connection between two events – for example; every time you wash your car it rains. If we actually charted every time you wash your car if it rains you would most likely not find that it is really raining each or even the majority of the time.
2. Authority
o Many people are all too ready to accept anything they learn from the Internet, news media, books, government officials, or religious figures. They believe that the statements of such authorities must be true. The problem, of course, is that the statements may not be true. The scientific approach rejects the notion that one can accept on faith the statements of any authority; again, more evidence is needed before we can draw scientific conclusions.
B. Skepticism, Science and the Empirical Approach
o Scientific skepticism means that ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations.
o The fundamental characteristic of the scientific method is empiricism —the idea that knowledge is based on observations.
o Data play a central role. For scientists, knowledge is primarily based on observations. Scientists enthusiastically search for observations that will verify their ideas about the world. They develop theories, argue that existing data support their theories, and conduct research that can increase our confidence that the theories are correct.
o Science is adversarial. Science is a way of thinking in which ideas do battle with other ideas in order to move ever closer to truth. Research can be conducted to test any idea; supporters of the idea and those who disagree with the idea can report their research findings, and others can evaluate these. Some ideas, even some very good ideas, may prove to be wrong if research fails to provide support for them.
o Good scientific ideas are testable - they can be supported or they can be falsified by data—the latter concept called falsifiability. If an idea is falsified when it is tested, science is thereby advanced because this result will spur the development of new and better ideas.
o Scientific evidence is peer reviewed. Before a study is published in a top quality scientific journal, other scientists who have the expertise to carefully evaluate the research review it. This process is called peer review.
1. Integrating Intuition, Skepticism, and Authority: There is also nothing wrong with having opinions or beliefs as long as they are presented simply as opinions or beliefs. However, we should always ask whether the opinion can be tested scientifically or whether scientific evidence exists that relates to the opinion.
II. Goals of Behavioral Science
Scientific research on behavior has four general goals: (1) to describe behavior, (2) to predict behavior, (3) to determine the causes of behavior, and (4) to understand or explain behavior.
A. Description of Behavior
1. Prediction of Behavior: the first goal of science is to describe behavior—which can be something directly observable (such as running speed, eye gaze, or loudness of laughter) or something less observable (like perceptions of attractiveness).
2. Determining the causes of Behavior: Once it has been observed with some regularity that two events are systematically related to one another (e.g., greater attractiveness is associated with more lenient sentencing), it becomes possible to make predictions. One implication of this process is that it allows us to anticipate events.
3. Explaining Behavior: A final goal of science is to explain the events that have been described. The scientist seeks to understand why the behavior occurs.
III. Basic and Applied Research
A. Basic Research: Basic research tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Studies are often designed to address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, motivation, learning, neuropsychology, personality development, and social behavior.
B. Applied Research: In contrast, applied research is conducted to address issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions.
C. Comparing Basic and Applied Research: Both basic and applied research is important, and neither can be considered superior to the other. In fact, progress in science is dependent on a synergy between basic and applied research. Much applied research is guided by the theories and findings of basic research investigations.
INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTION
Laboratory Demonstration: The False Consensus Effect
We often believe that others are more like ourselves than they really are. Thus, our predictions about others' beliefs or behaviors, based on casual observation, are very likely to err in the direction of our own beliefs or behavior. For example, college students who preferred brown bread estimated that over 50% of all other college students preferred brown bread, while white-bread eaters estimated more accurately that 37% showed brown bread preference (Ross, Greene, & House, 1977). This is known as the false consensus effect (Ross et al., 1977; Mullen, Atkins, Champion, Edwards, Hardy, Story, & Vanderlok, 1985). The false consensus effect provides the basis for the following demonstration, which emphasizes the need for systematic rather than casual observation.
Before describing the false consensus effect, have students answer the questions listed below. Next, have students predict the class mean for each question. Collect the data sheets. According to the false consensus effect, students' predictions about the class mean should be influenced by their own positions. Consequently, a student whose position is below the class mean is likely to make a prediction that will be below the class mean as well.
To demonstrate the effect statistically, compute the class mean for each question using the students' personal data. To involve the students in this process, divide the class into six groups and assign one question to each. Have them tabulate the answers for that question and calculate the mean. (Be sure each group has access to all the data sheets--rotating six batches of data sheets from one group to another until all groups have recorded data from all batches can do this.) Put the means on the board. Next, have students compute a score for each participant in the following way: For each question, score a +1 if the participant's personal answer and predicted class mean are either both below or both above the actual class mean; score a -1 if the participant's personal score and predicted class mean are on opposite sides of the actual class mean. Sum all six questions so that each participant now has a single score that ranges between -6 and +6. If people err randomly, the average score for all students should be zero. In contrast, if people err in the direction of their own beliefs, the average should be greater than zero. A simple, one-group t-test can be calculated using m = 0 for the null hypothesis.
Behavior Questions
Personal Prediction
answer for class
1. How many loads of laundry do you wash per week?
2. How many times per year do you attend worship
services at a church or temple?
3. How many times per week do you eat a meal from
a fast-food restaurant?
4. How many times per year do you wash your car?
5. How many times per year do you see a movie at
a theater?
6. How many times per week do you consume alcohol?
Mullen, B., Atkins, J. L., Champion, D. S., Edwards, C., Hardy, D., Story, J. E., & Vanderlok, M. (1985). The false consensus effect: A meta-analysis of 115 hypothesis tests. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 262-283.
Ross, L., Greene, D., & House, P. (1977). The false consensus phenomenon: An attributional bias in self-perception and social perception processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279-301.
Laboratory Demonstration: Single versus Multiple Observations
The systematic observation employed by scientists generally relies on many independent instances while casual observation is often based on only a few instances. The following demonstration is designed to show how misleading a small sample of observations may be. Divide the class into groups of three or four students each. Fill a bowl or basket with a "population" of poker chips or simple slips of paper. On each chip or piece of paper there should be written a single score. (An approximate normal distribution of 200 numbers is provided below.) Have each group draw 5 samples from the population and compute the mean for each sample. Each group, however, should draw samples of a different size from the other groups. For instance, group one draws 5 samples of size 1, group two draws 5 samples of size 3, group three draws 5 samples of size 5, and so on. The rate of progression from small to large samples depends on the number of groups. It is a good idea to have the last group draw fairly large size samples (e.g., N=20 or 25). Once the means for each sample are computed, have each group plot the means on a graph on the board. It should be obvious that with small samples we can easily get a distorted picture of the population mean. Note how the variability from sample mean to sample mean decreases dramatically as we increase the sample size. Discuss how many of our casual observations are based on relatively few observations.
The following population of scores yields a population mean of 17 and a standard deviation of 4.66.
X f X f
5 1 23 7
6 2 24 5
7 2 25 4
8 3 26 3
9 4 27 2
10 5 28 2
11 7 29 1
12 9 200
13 10
14 13 Note: This population of scores can
15 16 be used for demonstrations
16 18 suggested in Chapters 8 and 12.
test bank
test bank
ch2 Key
| 1. | A hypothesis is a
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #1 |
| 2. | A researcher makes the statement, "Breed of dog and ability to learn guide dog skills are related." This statement is called a
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #2 |
| 3. | Which of the following statements best represents a hypothesis?
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #3 |
| 4. | The statement "Punishment will be harsher for drunk drivers who cause serious injuries than for drivers who cause mild injuries" is an example of a
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #4 |
| 5. | A researcher designs a study to examine the relationship between gender and time spent talking in a group. The researcher states, "In a balanced mixed gender group, males will talk more than females." This is an example of a
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #5 |
| 6. | A prediction is best represented by which of the following statements?
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #6 |
| 7. | The statement "Females will report greater incidences of sexual harassment than will males" is an example of a ___________, while the statement "Reported incidences of sexual harassment will vary according to gender" is an example of a ___________.
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #7 |
| 8. | If the prediction "participants who consume alcohol will score lower on a reaction time test than participants who do not consume alcohol" is confirmed, we can say the hypothesis is ____________.
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #8 |
| 9. | A(n) __________ is a statement about the expected relationship between variables. A(n) ____________ is a statement about the outcome of a particular experiment.
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #9 |
| 10. | Which one of the following is a source of ideas for research projects?
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #10 |
| 11. | Testing common sense ideas
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #11 |
| 12. | There is an extensive body of research on the effects of music videos on children and adolescents. The initial source of ideas for this research was
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #12 |
| 13. | Michael Lynn's study on tipping behavior in restaurants and hotels, described in the text, was designed to determine whether factors such as posture and communication influence tips left by customers. The idea for his study was based on
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #13 |
| 14. | When an interesting discovery, such as Pavlov's phenomenon of classical conditioning, is a result of an accident or luck, this finding can be attributed to
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #14 |
| 15. | A(n) ____________ consists of a systematic body of ideas about a particular topic or phenomenon.
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #15 |
| 16. | A theory
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #16 |
| 17. | A theory
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #17 |
| 18. | The scientific meaning of the term "theory" is
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #18 |
| 19. | When the results of an experiment are consistent with a prediction developed from a theory, we conclude that the theory is
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #19 |
| 20. | Which of the following is NOT true of theories?
|
| Cozby - Chapter 02 #20 |
| 21. | As Joan becomes familiar with the literature examining the influence of physical attractiveness on judgments of criminal behavior, she notes inconsistencies in the results. She concludes that this area of study needs to be further investigated. This example best represents ___________ as a source of ideas for research.
|
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