An Introduction to the History of Psychology, 7th Edition B. R. Hergenhahn, Tracy Henley solutions manual and test bank
Chapter 2
Ancient Greece
Learning Objectives
After reading and discussing chapter 2 the student should:
2.1 Be familiar with how early humans explained their world including animism, anthropomorphism, “magic,” and early forms of Greek religion.
2.2 Be acquainted with the pre-Socratic philosophers.
1. Thales – cosmology and advent of the critical tradition
2. Anaximander – proposed rudimentary theory of evolution
3. Heraclitus – constant change
4. Parmenides and Zeno – reality is finite, uniform, and motionless, no change
5. Pythagoreans – all explained in numbers and numerical relationships,
experience through senses inferior to experience within mind
6. Empodocles – world made of four elements; earth, wind, fire, and water
7. Anaxagoras – postulated an infinite number of elements (seeds) from which everything comes from except the mind
8. Democritus – universe made of atoms; elementism, reductionism
2.3 Be familiar with early Greek medicine and its influence on later medicine.
1. Alcmaeon – naturalistic medicine, health is balance, early studies of physical systems
2. Hippocrates – all disorders result of natural factors, four humors in body
3. Galen – association of Hippocrates’ four humors with temperaments and personality types
2.4 Be familiar with the relativity of truth and the Sophists:
Protagoras – truth depends on the perceiver, not on physical reality
Gorgias – there can be no objective way of determining truth
Xenophanes – religion is a projection of its creator; postulated a god unlike any of his time
2.5 Understand Socrates’ method of inductive definition, his reaction to the relativity of the Sophists and the goal of life.
2.6 Understand Plato’s philosophy of the world, including the theory of forms, and use of empirical knowledge, the allegory of the cave, reminiscence theory of knowledge, his theory of knowledge, his tripartite nature of the soul, and his impact on science.
2.7 Be acquainted with and understand Aristotle’s philosophy and his treatment of various topics including:
· Ways of knowing truth in contrast to Plato, interaction of rationalism and empiricism.
· The four causes and teleology.
· Hierarchy of souls.
· Aristotle’s explanation of how we gain knowledge – the senses, common sense, passive reason, and active reason.
· View of remembering and recall and the laws of association.
· Explanations of imagination and dreaming.
· View on motivation and happiness.
· His proposal of the effect of emotions on selective perception and behavior.
Chapter Outline
I. The acient world
A. Animism and anthropomorphism
B. Magic
C. Homo Psychologicus
D. Early Greek religion
II. The first philosophers
A. Thales
B. Anaximander and Heraclitus
C. Parmenides and Zeno
D. Pythagoras
E. Empedocles
F. Anaxagoras
G. Democritus
III. Early Greek medicine
A. Alcmaeon
B. Hippocrates
IV. The relativity of truth
A. Protogoras
B. Gorgias
C. Xenophanes
D. Socrates
V. Plato
A. Theory of forms or ideas
B. The analogy of the divided
C. The allegory of the cave
D. The reminiscence theory of knowledge
E. The nature of the soul
F. Sleep and dreams
G. Plato’s legacy
VI. Aristotle
A. The basic difference between Plato and Aristotle
B. Causation and teleology.
C. Sensation and reason
D. Memory and recall
E. Imagination and dreaming
F. Motivation and emotion
VII. The importance of early Greek philosophy
Lecture/discussion topics
1. A discussion topic could be to contrast the views of Plato and Aristotle. This can set the stage for contrasts you may make later between opposing views, such as rationalism and empiricism, and cognitive science and behavioral views.
2. The students may have been exposed to some of the Greek philosophers (particularly Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle) in other classes such as philosophy or history. You may have a discussion regarding how the philosophers are discussed in those courses in contrast to in this course.
3. Students could discuss how the ideas of the early philosophers contributed to the development and perpetuation of Christianity. You may begin with the Dionysiac-Orphic religion and end with Aristotle’s views.
4. Discuss early Greek medicine and its role in society’s views of treatments today. For example, Hippocrates believed that the worst thing a physician could do is interfere with the body’s natural healing powers. Is this still true today? You could also compare and contrast osteopathic medical schools with the more traditional medical schools.
Discussion Topics
1. Summarize the major differences between Olympian and Dionysiac-Orphic religion.
2. Why were the first philosophers called physicists? List the physes arrived at by Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Pythagoras, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus.
3. What important epistemological question did Heraclitus’s philosophy raise?
4. Give examples of how logic was used to defend Parmenides’ belief that change and motion were illusions.
5. Differentiate between elementism and reductionism and give an example of each.
6. What were the major differences between temple medicine and the type of medicine practiced by Alcmaeon and the Hippocratics?
7. How did the Sophists differ from the philosophers who preceded them? What was the Sophists’ attitude toward knowledge? In what way did Socrates agree with the Sophists, and in what way did he disagree?
8. What, for Socrates, was the goal of philosophical inquiry? What method did he use in pursuing that goal?
9. Describe Plato’s theory of forms.
10. In Plato’s philosophy, what was the analogy of the divided line?
11. Summarize Plato’s cave allegory. What points was Plato making with this allegory?
12. Discuss Plato’s reminiscence theory of knowledge.
13. Compare Aristotle’s attitude toward sensory experience with that of Plato.
14. According to Aristotle, what were the four causes of things?
15. Discuss Aristotle’s concept of entelechy.
16. Describe Aristotle’s concept of scala naturae, and indicate how that concept justifies a
comparative psychology.
17. Discuss Aristotle’s concept of soul.
18. Discuss the relationship among sensory experience, common sense, passive reason, and
active reason.
19. Summarize Aristotle’s views on imagination and dreaming.
20. Discuss Aristotle’s views on happiness. What, for him, provided the greatest happiness?
What characterized the life lived in accordance with the golden mean?
21. Discuss Aristotle’s views on emotions.
22. In Aristotle’s philosophy, what was the function of the unmoved mover?
23. Describe the laws of association that Aristotle proposed.
24. Summarize the reasons Greek philosophy was important to the development of Western
civilization.
Glossary
Active reason: According to Aristotle, the faculty of the soul that searches for the essences or abstract concepts that manifest themselves in the empirical world. Aristotle thought that the active reason part of the soul was immortal.
Alcmaeon (fl. ca. 500 B.C.): One of the first Greek physicians to move away from the magic and superstition of temple medicine and toward a naturalistic understanding and treatment of illness.
Allegory: of the cave: Plato’s description of individuals who live their lives in accordance with the shadows of reality provided by sensory experience instead of in accordance with the true reality beyond sensory experience.
Analogy of the divided line: Plato’s illustration of his contention that there is a hierarchy of understanding. The lowest type of understanding is based on images of empirical objects. Next highest is an understanding of empirical objects themselves, which results only in opinion. Next is an understanding of abstract mathematical principles. Then comes an understanding of the forms. The highest understanding (true knowledge) is an understanding of the form of the good that includes a knowledge of all forms and their organization.
Anaxagoras (ca. 500–428 B.C.): Postulated an infinite number of elements (seeds) from which everything is made. He believed that everything contains all the elements and that a thing’s identity is determined by which elements predominate. An exception is the mind, which contains no other element but may combine with other elements, thereby creating life.
Anaximander (ca. 610–547 B.C.): Suggested the infinite or boundless as the physis and formulated a rudimentary theory of evolution.
Animism: The belief that everything in nature is alive.
Anthropomorphism: The projection of human attributes onto nonhuman things.
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.): Believed sensory experience to be the basis of all knowledge, although the five senses and the common sense provided only the information from which knowledge could be derived. Aristotle also believed that everything in nature had within it an entelechy (purpose) that determined its potential. Active reason, which was considered the immortal part of the human soul, provided humans with their greatest potential, and therefore fully actualized humans engage in active reason. Because everything was thought to have a cause, Aristotle postulated an unmoved mover that caused everything in the world but was not itself caused. (See also Unmoved mover.)
Associationism: The philosophical belief that mental phenomena, such as learning, remembering, and imagining, can be explained in terms of the laws of association. (See also Laws of association.)
Becoming: According to Heraclitus, the state of everything in the universe. Nothing is static and unchanging; rather, everything in the universe is dynamic—that is, becoming something other than what it was.
Being: Something that is unchanging and thus, in principle, is capable of being known with certainty. Being implies stability and certainty; becoming implies instability and uncertainty.
Common sense: According to Aristotle, the faculty located in the heart that synthesizes the information provided by the five senses.
Cosmology: The study of the origin, structure, and processes governing the universe.
Democritus (ca. 460–370 B.C.): Offered atoms as the physis. Everything in nature, including humans, was explained in terms of atoms and their activities. His was the first completely materialistic view of the world and of humans.
Dionysiac-Orphic religion: Religion whose major belief was that the soul becomes a prisoner of the body because of some transgression committed by the soul. The soul continues on a circle of transmigrations until it has been purged of sin, at which time it can escape its earthly existence and return to its pure, divine existence among the gods. A number of magical practices were thought useful in releasing the soul from its bodily tomb.
Efficient cause: According to Aristotle, the force that transforms a thing.
Eidola (plural, eidolon): A tiny replication that some early Greek philosophers thought emanated from the surfaces of things in the environment, allowing the things to be perceived.
Elementism: The belief that complex processes can be understood by studying the elements of which they consist.
Empedocles (ca. 490–430 B.C.): Postulated earth, fire, air, and water as the four basic elements from which everything is made and two forces, love and strife, that alternately synthesize and separate those elements. He was also the first philosopher to suggest a theory of perception, and he offered a theory of evolution that emphasized a rudimentary form of natural selection.
Entelechy: According to Aristotle, the purpose for which a thing exists, which remains a potential until actualized. Active reason, for example, is the human entelechy, but it exists only as a potential in many humans.
Essence: That indispensable characteristic of a thing that gives it its unique identity.
Final cause: According to Aristotle, the purpose for which a thing exists.
Formal cause: According to Aristotle, the form of a thing.
Forms: According to Plato, the pure, abstract realities that are unchanging and timeless and therefore knowable. Such forms create imperfect manifestations of themselves when they interact with matter. It is these imperfect manifestations of the forms that are the objects of our sense impressions. (See also Theory of forms.)
Galen (ca. A.D. 130–200): Associated each of Hippocrates’ four humors with a temperament, thus creating a rudimentary theory of personality.
Golden mean: The rule Aristotle suggested people follow to avoid excesses and to live a life of moderation.
Gorgias (ca. 485–380 B.C.): A Sophist who believed the only reality a person can experience is his or her subjective reality and that this reality can never be accurately communicated to another individual.
Heraclitus (ca. 540–480 B.C.): Suggested fire as the physis because in its presence nothing remains the same. He viewed the world as in a constant state of flux and thereby raised the question as to what could be known with certainty.
Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 B.C.): Considered the father of modern medicine because he assumed that disease had natural causes, not supernatural ones. Health prevails when the four humors of the body are in balance, disease when there is an imbalance. The physician’s task was to facilitate the body’s natural tendency to heal itself.
Imagination: According to Aristotle, the pondering of the images retained from past experiences.
Inductive definition: The technique used by Socrates that examined many individual examples of a concept to discover what they all had in common.
Introspection: The careful examination of one’s subjective experiences.
Law of contiguity: A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of things that are usually experienced along with it.
Law of contrast: A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of opposite things.
Law of frequency: In general, the more often events are experienced together, the stronger they become associated in memory.
Law of similarity: A thought of something will tend to cause thoughts of similar things.
Laws of association: Those laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory. For Aristotle, the laws of association consisted of the laws of contiguity, contrast, similarity, and frequency.
Magic: Various ceremonies and rituals that are designed to influence spirits and nature.
Material cause: According to Aristotle, what a thing is made of.
Nihilism: The belief that because what is considered true varies from person to person, any search for universal (interpersonal) truth will fail. In other words, there is no one truth, only truths. The Sophists were nihilists.
Olympian religion: The religion based on a belief in the Olympian gods as they were described in the Homeric poems. Olympian religion tended to be favored by the privileged classes, whereas peasants, laborers, and slaves tended to favor the more mystical Dionysiac- Orphic religion. (See also Dionysiac-Orphic religion.)
Parmenides (born ca. 515 B.C.): Believed that the world was solid, fixed, and motionless and therefore that all apparent change or motion was an illusion.
Passive reason: According to Aristotle, the practical utilization of the information provided by the common sense.
Physis: A primary substance or element from which everything is thought to be derived.
Plato (ca. 427–347 B.C.): First a disciple of Socrates, came under the influence of the Pythagoreans, and postulated the existence of an abstract world of forms or ideas that, when manifested in matter, make up the objects in the empirical world. The only true knowledge is that of the forms, a knowledge that can be gained only by reflecting on the innate contents of the soul. Sensory experience interferes with the attainment of knowledge and should be avoided.
Protagoras (ca. 485–410 B.C.): A Sophist who taught that “Man is the measure of all things.” In other words, what is considered true varies with a person’s personal experiences; therefore, there is no objective truth, only individual versions of what is true.
Pythagoras (ca. 580–500 B.C.): Believed that an abstract world consisting of numbers and numerical relationships exerted an influence on the physical world. He created a dualistic view of humans by saying that in addition to our body, we have a mind (soul), which through reasoning could understand the abstract world of numbers. Furthermore, he believed the human soul to be immortal. Pythagoras’ philosophy had a major influence on Plato and, through Christianity, on the entire Western world.
Rational soul: According to Aristotle, the soul possessed only by humans. It incorporates the functions of the vegetative and sensitive souls and allows thinking about events in the empirical world (passive reason) and the abstraction of the concepts that characterize events in the empirical world (active reason).
Recall: For Aristotle, the active mental search for the recollection of past experiences.
Reductionism: The attempt to explain objects or events in one domain by using terminology, concepts, laws, or principles from another domain. Explaining observable phenomena (domain 1) in terms of atomic theory (domain 2) would be an example; explaining human behavior and cognition (domain 1) in terms of biochemical principles (domain 2) would be another. In a sense, it can be said that events in domain 1 are reduced to events in domain 2.
Remembering: For Aristotle, the passive recollection of past experiences.
Reminiscence theory of knowledge: Plato’s belief that knowledge is attained by remembering the experiences the soul had when it dwelled among the forms before entering the body.
Scala naturae: Aristotle’s description of nature as being arranged in a hierarchy from formless matter to the unmoved mover. In this grand design, the only thing higher than humans was the unmoved mover.
Sensitive soul: According to Aristotle, the soul possessed by animals. It includes the functions provided by the vegetative soul and provides the ability to interact with the environment and to retain the information gained from that interaction.
Socrates (ca. 470–399 B.C.): Disagreed with the Sophists’ contention that there is no discernible truth beyond individual opinion. Socrates believed that by examining a number of individual manifestations of a concept, the general concept itself could be defined clearly and precisely. These general definitions are stable and knowable and, when known, generate moral behavior.
Solipsism: The belief that a person’s subjective reality is the only reality that exists and can be known.
Sophists: A group of philosopher-teachers who believed that “truth” was what people thought it to be. To convince others that something is true, one needs effective communication skills, and it was those skills that the Sophists taught.
Teleology: The belief that nature is purposive. Aristotle’s philosophy was teleological.
Temple medicine: The type of medicine practiced by priests in early Greek temples that was characterized by superstition and magic. Individuals such as Alcmaeon and Hippocrates severely criticized temple medicine and were instrumental in displacing such practices with naturalistic medicine—that is, medicine that sought natural causes of disorders rather than supernatural causes.
Thales (ca. 625–547 B.C.): Often called the first philosopher because he emphasized natural instead of supernatural explanations of things. By encouraging the critical evaluation of his ideas and those of others, he is thought to have started the Golden Age of Greek philosophy. He believed water to be the primary element from which everything else was derived.
Theory of forms: Plato’s contention that ultimate reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects in the empirical world. Knowledge of these abstractions is innate and can be attained only through introspection.
Theory of mind: An area in cognitive development that concerns how we come to know the beliefs, feelings, plans, and behavioral intentions of other people.
Transmigration of the soul: The Dionysiac-Orphic belief that because of some transgression, the soul is compelled to dwell in one earthly prison after another until it is purified. The transmigration may find the soul at various times in plants, animals, and humans as it seeks redemption.
Unmoved mover: According to Aristotle, that which gave nature its purpose, or final cause, but was itself uncaused. In Aristotle’s philosophy, the unmoved mover was a logical necessity.
Vegetative soul: The soul possessed by plants. It allows only growth, the intake of nutrition, and reproduction.
Xenophanes (ca. 560–478 B.C.): Believed people created gods in their own image. He noted that darkskinned people created dark-skinned gods and lightskinned people created light-skinned gods. He speculated that the gods created by nonhuman animals would have the characteristics of those animals. He postulated the existence of one all-powerful god without human characteristics but warned that all beliefs are suspect, even his own.
Zeno of Elea (ca. 495–430 B.C.): A disciple of Parmenedes known for his clever examples and fables (see Zeno’s Paradox).
Zeno’s paradox: The assertion that in order for an object to pass from point A to point B, it must first traverse half the distance between those two points, and then half of the remaining distance, and so forth. Because this process must occur an infinite number of times, Zeno concluded that an object could logically never reach point B.
Research activities
1. Some students, as a research activity, may want to learn more about the ancient Greeks and the ancient world. The website listed below is a good site to start such an activity. It has multiple links to many of the philosophers and is essentially “an evolving digital library of resources for the study of the ancient world.”
2. The following website provides materials for the study of women and gender in the ancient world. It provides an extensive overview of the topic with multiple links to bibliographies, images, essays, and much more.
Diotima: Materials for the Study of Women and Gender in the Ancient World
History of Women in the Ancient World - Directory of Online Resources:
http://www.academicinfo.net/histancwomen.html
Chapter 2: The Early Greek Philosophers
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Viewing all of nature as though it were alive is called:
| A. | anthropomorphism |
| B. | animism |
| C. | primitivism |
| D. | mysticism |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: The Ancient World
2. Projecting human attributes onto nature is called:
| A. | anthropomorphism |
| B. | animism |
| C. | primitivism |
| D. | vitalism |
ANS: A DIF: factual REF: The Ancient World
3. Why were the Greek nobility more likely to follow the Olympian religion rather than the Dionysiac-Orphic religion?
| A. | Belief in the transmigration of the soul |
| B. | The personification of orderliness, rationality, and intelligence in the Olympian gods |
| C. | Desire to hold onto past lives even after death |
| D. | Fear of condemnation for living an extravagant lifestyle |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The Ancient World
4. An area in cognitive development that concerns how we come to know the beliefs, feelings, plans, and behavioral intentions of other people is referred to as:
| A. | theory of forms |
| B. | theory of the mind |
| C. | laws of subjective norms |
| D. | laws of association |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: The Ancient World
NOT: new
5. Which example best illustrates the concept of theory of the mind?
| A. | Brandon’s brain controls his body, and his mind controls his thoughts and emotions. |
| B. | Javier reads a passage in a book, and draws from his past experiences to understand its meaning. |
| C. | Stephanie understands that she is looking at a flower because of the coordinated processes of sensation and perception. |
| D. | While walking down the street, Camilla turns the corner to avoid a man with an angry look on his face. |
ANS: D DIF: applied REF: The Ancient World
NOT: new
6. Philosophy began:
| A. | to explain how the supernatural controls natural events |
| B. | with the introduction of deductive reasoning |
| C. | when logos replaced mythos |
| D. | with the discovery of the brain as the center of intelligence |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
NOT: new
7. Who was the first to emphasize natural explanations and to minimize supernatural explanations?
| A. | Heraclitus |
| B. | Anaximander |
| C. | Thales |
| D. | Democritus |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: The First Philosophers
8. The early Greeks referred to a substance from which everything else is derived as a(n):
| A. | spirit |
| B. | atom |
| C. | universal |
| D. | physis |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: The First Philosophers
9. According to Anaximander, the physis was something that:
| A. | was too complex to explain life |
| B. | was incapable of deriving into anything |
| C. | had a finite number of possibilities |
| D. | had the capability of becoming anything |
ANS: D DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
10. What important epistemological question was raised by Heraclitus' philosophy?
| A. | What does it mean to be me? |
| B. | How can something be known if it is constantly changing? |
| C. | Why would a man want to step into the same river more than once? |
| D. | What constitutes the good life? |
ANS: B DIF: applied REF: The First Philosophers
11. Parmenides believed that knowledge is attained only through rational thought because sensory experience:
| A. | is a supernatural force |
| B. | provides illusion |
| C. | is illogical |
| D. | is a distracter from the truth |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
12. In order for an object to pass from point A to point B, it must first traverse half the distance between those two points, and then half of the remaining distance, and so forth. Therefore A can never logically reach point B. This scenario best illustrates:
| A. | the relativity of truth |
| B. | philosophical inconsistency |
| C. | a Kuhnian paradigm clash |
| D. | Zeno's paradox |
ANS: D DIF: applied REF: The First Philosophers
NOT: new
13. According to the Pythagoreans, perfection is found:
| A. | only in the empirical world of mathematical relationships |
| B. | only in the abstract mathematical world and understood only by reason |
| C. | in both the empirical and abstract worlds of mathematics |
| D. | in neither the empirical nor the abstract worlds |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
14. Which aspect of Empedocles' philosophy might be used to explain the types of intrapersonal and extrapersonal conflicts described later in history by Freud?
| A. | The transmigration of the soul |
| B. | The forces of love and strife that wax and wane within us |
| C. | The elements of earth, fire, air, and water |
| D. | The clashes of atoms |
ANS: B DIF: applied REF: The First Philosophers
15. Empedocles assumed that perception results when:
| A. | vibrations from external objects stimulate sense receptors |
| B. | sensory information is analyzed by the brain |
| C. | eidola enters the pores of the body and mixes with elements found in the blood |
| D. | sensations interact with memories of prior experiences |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: The First Philosophers
16. No matter how complex something is, Democritus believed that it can be explained in terms of atoms and their activity. This view is referred to as:
| A. | solipsism |
| B. | animism |
| C. | elementism |
| D. | material cause |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
17. Because Democritus attempted to explain events occurring in one domain (observable phenomena) in terms of events occurring in another domain (the arrangements of atoms), he is considered a(n):
| A. | elementist |
| B. | reductionist |
| C. | physicist |
| D. | Orphist |
ANS: B DIF: applied REF: The First Philosophers
18. For Democritus, perception occurred when atoms emanating from the surface of objects entered the ____ and were transmitted to the ____.
| A. | pores of the body; heart |
| B. | sensory systems of the body; brain |
| C. | pores of the body; liver |
| D. | sensory systems of the body; heart |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: The First Philosophers
19. The early physician, Alcmaeon, proposed:
| A. | that health resulted from a balance of qualities in the body |
| B. | the physician's job was to help the patient focus energy on the mind |
| C. | that sensation, memory, thinking, and understanding occurred in the heart |
| D. | mental acuity was achieved when our physical state disconnects from our mental state |
ANS: A DIF: conceptual REF: The First Philosophers
20. The Hippocratics believed that physical illness was caused by:
| A. | possession by evil spirits |
| B. | a life characterized by hedonism |
| C. | an imbalance of the four bodily humors |
| D. | the patient's inner desire to be ill |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: Early Greek Medicine
21. According to the Hippocratics, physicians assign supernatural causes to a disease in order to:
| A. | charge larger fees for their services |
| B. | make the disease more comprehensible to their patient |
| C. | mask their ignorance concerning the nature of the disease |
| D. | cure the disease more effectively |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: Early Greek Medicine
22. The "cures" proposed by the Hippocratics included:
| A. | fervent prayer and supplication to the Gods |
| B. | drinking fluids specially prepared by the physician |
| C. | rest, proper diet, exercise, fresh air, massage, and baths |
| D. | putting their essence in connection with the essence of the Gods |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: Early Greek Medicine
23. According to the Sophists, what is it that determines if an idea is accepted as the truth?
| A. | The truthfulness of the idea |
| B. | How effectively the idea is communicated |
| C. | The scientific evidence offered to support the idea |
| D. | The idea's usefulness |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The Relativity of Truth
24. Protagorus, the best known Sophist, presented the Sophist's position. Which of the following statements best represents his position?
| A. | Truth depends on the physical reality, not on the perceiver |
| B. | What is truth should not be affected by the culture one lives in |
| C. | Perceptions vary from person to person because previous experiences affect perceptions |
| D. | Perceptions are similar from person to person because we all share a similar reality |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: The Relativity of Truth
25. Because Gorgias believed that there is no objective way of establishing truth, he was a:
| A. | solipsist |
| B. | Socratic |
| C. | nihilist |
| D. | reductionist |
ANS: C DIF: applied REF: The Relativity of Truth
26. Which statement best represents the beliefs of Gorgias?
| A. | If animals could describe their gods, those gods would have animal characteristics. |
| B. | There is no objective way of determining truth. |
| C. | We share a reality and a similar perception of reality. |
| D. | Empirical evidence is the determinant of truth. |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The Relativity of Truth
27. Xenophanes believed that:
| A. | religious and moral "truths" are innate |
| B. | if animals could convey their impression of gods, those gods would have animal characteristics |
| C. | using the techniques of inductive definition, objective truth can be ascertained |
| D. | the only way to arrive at truth is to introspect on the contents of the soul |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: The Relativity of Truth
28. Socrates used the method of ____ to determine what all examples of a concept such as beauty have in common.
| A. | Sophistry |
| B. | inductive definition |
| C. | introspection |
| D. | logical deduction |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: The Relativity of Truth
29. For Socrates, essences were:
| A. | impossible to determine |
| B. | verbal definitions |
| C. | transcendental truths |
| D. | unimportant |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: The Relativity of Truth
30. Plato’s theory of forms is best represented by the statement: The cats that we see are:
| A. | superior copies of an abstract incomplete form of “catness” |
| B. | inferior copies of an abstract pure idea of “catness” |
| C. | manifestations of our sensory processes but in actuality we cannot know if they exist |
| D. | concrete forms born of our sensory processes, proving their existence |
ANS: B DIF: applied REF: Plato NOT: new
31. According to Plato, the components of the soul are:
| A. | really the same |
| B. | typically in harmony with one another |
| C. | often in conflict with one another |
| D. | subservient to the bodily needs |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: Plato
32. The allegory of the cave demonstrates:
| A. | how difficult it is to deliver humans from ignorance |
| B. | that truth is relative |
| C. | that most humans have a passionate desire to know the truth |
| D. | that learning is remembering |
ANS: A DIF: applied REF: Plato
33. Plato’s analogy of the divided line illustrates:
| A. | the influences of the soul |
| B. | an existence in the shadows of reality |
| C. | the need for sensory experience |
| D. | a hierarchy of understanding |
ANS: D DIF: conceptual REF: Plato NOT: new
34. According to Plato’s reminiscence theory of knowledge, all knowledge is:
| A. | personal opinion |
| B. | innate |
| C. | derived from sensory experience |
| D. | culturally determined |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: Plato
35. According to Plato, whether one is a philosopher-king, a soldier, or a slave, is largely determined by:
| A. | personal effort |
| B. | educational experience |
| C. | the social influence of one's parents |
| D. | biological inheritance |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: Plato
36. Plato believed that the ideal society would be governed by:
| A. | God |
| B. | common people |
| C. | philosopher-kings |
| D. | soldiers |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: Plato
37. According to Plato, the supreme goal in life should be to:
| A. | give all components of the soul equal expression |
| B. | return to the world beyond the world |
| C. | be courageous in the face of danger |
| D. | free the soul as much as possible from the adulterations of the flesh |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: Plato
38. The particular form or pattern of an object is its ____ cause.
| A. | material |
| B. | formal |
| C. | efficient |
| D. | final |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
39. The force that transforms matter into a particular form is its ____ cause.
| A. | material |
| B. | formal |
| C. | efficient |
| D. | final |
ANS: C DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
40. The purpose for which an object exists is its ____ cause.
| A. | material |
| B. | formal |
| C. | efficient |
| D. | final |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
41. According to Aristotle, the ____kept an object moving or developing in its prescribed direction until its full potential was reached.
| A. | entelechy |
| B. | instincts |
| C. | form of the good |
| D. | rational mind |
ANS: A DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
42. Because Aristotle assumed that everything in nature exists for a purpose, his theory is labeled:
| A. | religious |
| B. | empirical |
| C. | teleological |
| D. | nativistic |
ANS: C DIF: applied REF: Aristotle
43. According to Aristotle, we perceive environmental objects because:
| A. | tiny copies of them enter the pores of the body |
| B. | their movement influences a medium, which in turn stimulates one or more of the five senses |
| C. | their eidola go through one or more of the five senses and then to the heart |
| D. | their eidola go through one or more of the five sense and then to the brain |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: Aristotle
44. Aristotle postulated ____ as the mechanism that coordinates information from the five senses.
| A. | the mind |
| B. | the soul |
| C. | the entelechy |
| D. | common sense |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
45. For Aristotle, sensory experience:
| A. | is the only thing necessary for attaining knowledge |
| B. | is unnecessary for attaining knowledge |
| C. | is necessary but not sufficient for attaining knowledge |
| D. | inhibits the attainment of knowledge |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: Aristotle
46. According to Aristotle, the unmoved mover:
| A. | is God |
| B. | is nature |
| C. | sets nature in motion and does little else |
| D. | has the same essence as the form of the good |
ANS: C DIF: conceptual REF: Aristotle
47. According to Aristotle, ____ is a spontaneous recollection of something that had been previously experienced and ____ involves an actual mental search for a past experience.
| A. | recall; remembering |
| B. | remembering; recall |
| C. | reminiscence; association |
| D. | association; remembering |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
48. The law of ____ states that if we think of something, we will also tend to recall the things we experienced along with it.
| A. | similarity |
| B. | frequency |
| C. | contrast |
| D. | contiguity |
ANS: D DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
49. What aspect of Aristotle's philosophy became the cornerstone of most modern theories of learning?
| A. | The reminiscence theory of knowledge |
| B. | The laws of association |
| C. | The notion of common sense |
| D. | The assumption that the souls of the living organisms are arranged in a hierarchy |
ANS: B DIF: conceptual REF: Aristotle
50. According to Aristotle, ____ is explained as the lingering effects of sensory experience.
| A. | common sense |
| B. | imagination |
| C. | scala naturae |
| D. | entelechy |
ANS: B DIF: factual REF: Aristotle
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