Introduction to Sociology, 11th Edition solutions manual and test bank by Henry L. Tischler

Introduction to Sociology, 11th Edition solutions manual and test bank by Henry L. Tischler

Chapter 2—Doing Sociology: Research Methods

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. A variable is:

a.	anything that can change.
b.	a testable statement about the relationship between two or more hypotheses.
c.	a factor that always remains constant.
d.	a statement of association.
e.	a fact given a definition in a research process.

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Factual

2. When two variables are related but one does not cause the other, researchers term the situation:

a.	a validity.
b.	an association.
c.	a bias.
d.	a reliability.
e.	an establishment.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

3. Which of the following is a statement of causality?

a.	Rural areas have fewer services than urban areas.
b.	This sociology course is difficult.
c.	Poverty produces low self-esteem.
d.	Mean income in New York is higher than mean income in Florida.
e.	On average, more persons are murdered in Texas than Arizona.

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Conceptual

4. "Cigarette smoking has been shown to be related to lung disease." This proposition includes:

a.	a statement of bias against smoking.
b.	a statement of association.
c.	no independent variable.
d.	all of the above
e.	none of the above

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Conceptual

5. On average, the taller a person is, the more she or he is likely to weigh. The evidence for this statement would most likely be:

a.	a statement causality.
b.	random insight.
c.	an examination of the first ten persons walking into a classroom in a non-biased way.
d.	a statement of association.
e.	a firm biological relationship.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Applied

6. "Social class background is a good predictor of achievement in school." In this statement, achievement in school is the:

a.	independent variable.
b.	dependent variable.
c.	significant variable.
d.	control variable.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Applied

7. "Men who live in cities are more likely to marry young than men who live in the country." In this hypothesis, the dependent variable is the:

a.	place of residence (city or country).
b.	marital status (single or married).
c.	age at marriage.
d.	sex.
e.	There is no dependent variable in this example.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Applied

8. In a recent national survey, it was learned that the grade point average of college seniors was correlated with their class attendance. In that study, the independent variable was:

a.	class attendance.
b.	class rank, e.g., senior status.
c.	grade point average.
d.	the national survey.

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Applied

9. Using a structured interview:

a.	might allow useful information to be ignored or lost.
b.	guarantees that useful information will not be lost.
c.	guarantees that researchers' bias will not affect the study.
d.	provides results that are valid.
e.	provides the only true method of achieving reliability.

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

10. In what type of interview does the investigator ask a list of questions, but is free to vary them or make up new questions on topics that take on importance during the course of the interview?

a.	a structured interview
b.	an open-ended interview
c.	an invalid experiment
d.	a participant observation
e.	subject to interviewer bias

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

11. A major drawback of open-ended interviews is that:

a.	some interviews may not cover topics important to the research project.
b.	information obtained will be somewhat different for each subject, and therefore unreliable.
c.	researchers continuously have to make up new questions.
d.	analysis of the information is a complex and time-consuming process.
e.	respondents do not like open-ended interviews.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Conceptual

12. Riding in unmarked police cars to collect data on drug dealers is using:

a.	a longitudinal survey.
b.	a laboratory experiment.
c.	participant observation.
d.	a semi-structured interview.
e.	secondary observation.

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

13. In the early 1960s, sociologist Herbert Gans moved into a newly developed suburb in New Jersey where he lived for two years, observing and interviewing his neighbors. In research terms, Gans conducted a _____ study.

a.	documentary
b.	experimental
c.	survey
d.	participant observation
e.	secondary analysis

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

14. Sociologists utilizing the Census, the FBI statistics, or statistics from the Department of Labor would be engaged in which type of data collection method?

a.	participant observation
b.	survey research
c.	experiments
d.	secondary analysis

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

15. Bob grew up in the church, where he proposed to study ethics in church finance. He found it difficult to say anything negative or critical about the people who were part of his community, even when he discovered some financial manipulations by members of the congregation. Which of the following is a potential problem in this study?

a.	a high degree of subject object conflict
b.	unintentional bias created by the emotional attachment of the researcher to subjects
c.	a frequent inability to get at the subtleties and nuances of social interaction
d.	differences between generations in experience
e.	Selecting what to report as significant is normal, so there is no problem.

ANS: B REF: Objectivity in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.5 MSC: Applied

16. Which of the following research designs is least used by sociologists?

a.	survey research
b.	participant observation
c.	controlled experiment
d.	structured interview
e.	secondary analysis

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

17. The main advantage of experiments in social research is that:

a.	people tend to act more naturally in laboratory settings.
b.	researchers have control over the variables of the study.
c.	interactions of large groups can easily be studied.
d.	it is the least expensive form of research design.
e.	subjects respond most honestly.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

18. In research, a sample is defined as:

a.	all the people who share a particular characteristic of research interest.
b.	two or more people who share the same values.
c.	the portion of the total population chosen for study.
d.	the one case or person that best represents a particular social category.
e.	a small group of volunteers for the study.

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Factual

19. Failure to achieve a representative sample is known as:

a.	researcher bias.
b.	sampling error.
c.	subjectivity.
d.	stratified sampling.
e.	all of the above

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Factual

20. People are selected from a group in such a way that every person has the same chance of being selected. The people who are selected make up what type of sample?

a.	representative
b.	random
c.	stratified
d.	cross-sectional
e.	unintentional

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Conceptual

21. Select the appropriate group to create a stratified random sample of students at your school.

a.	300 students selected at random
b.	all the low-income students enrolled in the college
c.	all racial and religious groups represented in proportion to their numbers at the college
d.	every fifth student selected from an alphabetical listing of names
e.	blind picking of students standing outside of a student union building

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Applied

22. In a research study, investigators at one of the study sites are not told what is actually being tested, nor are they told who the research subjects are. This is an example of:

a.	double-blind technique.
b.	random sampling.
c.	poor research design.
d.	biased research techniques.
e.	a controlled experiment.

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.5

MSC: Conceptual

23. The use of blind or double-blind investigators in a study is done to avoid:

a.	sampling error.
b.	sample bias.
c.	uncontrollable variables.
d.	researcher bias.
e.	random error.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.5

MSC: Factual

24. The midway point in a series of scores or figures resulting in half of the scores being above and half being below is called the:

a.	mean.
b.	median.
c.	mode.
d.	meridian.
e.	moderate.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Factual

25. Find the mode of the following quiz scores: 92, 84, 76, 92, 87, 100.

a.	84
b.	87
c.	76
d.	92
e.	100

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Applied

26. Find the mode of the following quiz scores: 45, 77, 65, 67, 51, 98, 51, 77, 79, 69, 86, 83, 77, 99, 98, 54, 68, 77, 93, 94, 72, 77.

a.	68
b.	77
c.	68.5
d.	72
e.	79.4

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Applied

27. Find the mean of the following quiz scores: 12, 24, 36, 47, 57, 100.

a.	24
b.	100
c.	46
d.	87
e.	57

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Applied

28. Find the median of the following quiz scores: 14, 5, 5, 4, 4, 18, 12, 7, 14, 10, 6.

a.	5
b.	7
c.	10
d.	14
e.	18

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Applied

29. This measure of central tendency is commonly referred to as the average.

a.	median
b.	mode
c.	mean
d.	mentor
e.	merit

ANS: C REF: 39 OBJ: 2.6 MSC: Factual

30. Which measure of central tendency is most useful when there is a relatively narrow range of figures?

a.	median
b.	mode
c.	mean
d.	mentor
e.	merit

ANS: C REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Conceptual

31. You are reading a statistical table. What part of that table would help you make a decision as to the reliability of the table's information?

a.	source
b.	title
c.	footnotes
d.	column and row labels
e.	publication date

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.7

MSC: Conceptual

32. Knowing the source of the information in a statistical table can help you:

a.	identify other references of the same data.
b.	determine if the data collection agent had a background in sociology.
c.	determine of the data has been previously used elsewhere.
d.	determine other ways to collect the same data.
e.	decide if the information is reliable.

ANS: E REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.7

MSC: Conceptual

33. What type of research did Emile Durkheim depend on in his classic study on suicide?

a.	primary research
b.	public research
c.	qualitative research
d.	secondary research
e.	Durkheim did analysis, not research.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

34. _____ refers to consistency of results in research; _____ refers to the appropriateness of a measure to the phenomenon being studied.

a.	Reliability; validity
b.	Validity; reliability
c.	Representative; validity
d.	Reliability; objectivity
e.	Neutrality; validity

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

35. Validity refers to:

a.	the quality of consistency in measurement.
b.	the extent to which the researcher measured what she had planned to measure.
c.	the manner in which the researcher has operationalizing variables.
d.	the sum of independent and dependent variables.
e.	the lack of researcher bias which can be demonstrated statistically.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

36. You just read a study which reports that marijuana use leads to heroin addiction. After a careful examination of the literature, you are unable to find any other researcher who has been able to duplicate these results. You may conclude that this study lacks:

a.	reliability.
b.	representation.
c.	cohesiveness.
d.	validity.
e.	legality.

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

37. Max Weber argued that sociologists need to:

a.	become more personally involved in their research.
b.	rely on their morals to decide which scientific findings should be accepted as true.
c.	clearly state their personal values before beginning their research study.
d.	refrain from including their personal values into the research process.
e.	take on research for those social causes for which they are certain to help society's powerless persons who have no other spokesperson.

ANS: D REF: Objectivity in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.5 MSC: Factual

38. You would like to do a study of household size among the population of the state of Illinois. Which type of study method would be appropriate?

a.	unstructured interviews
b.	cross-sectional study
c.	longitudinal study
d.	scientific experiment
e.	participant observation

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 1.2

MSC: Applied

39. Objectivity requires a social researcher to:

a.	assume a completely neutral stance toward the issue under investigation.
b.	recognize and attempt to control for bias.
c.	manipulate the research subjects as if they were inanimate objects.
d.	disguise any personal bias that they might have.
e.	sign statements agreeing to remove all personal bias from their research.

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.9

MSC: Conceptual

40. You just proved a research hypothesis false. As a sociologist, how should you treat this?

a.	When a hypothesis is false, you should double check your sample for errors.
b.	Hypothesis testing is flawed by nature, so you should try again until things fit.
c.	False hypotheses are rare, so this finding is itself worth keeping.
d.	Proving a hypothesis false helps to eliminate wrong answers and clarify research.
e.	A hypothesis that is false in one sense may be true in another.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

41. Ethical considerations that must be part of a sociologist's research include:

a.	striving to protect the rights and privacy of participants.
b.	promising anonymity to investigators.
c.	ensuring that participants accept all findings.
d.	ensuring that results will support the hypothesis.
e.	promising to present all theoretical ideas on a subject.

ANS: A REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

42. It is clear that a large survey is an appropriate method for a study of marriage patterns among college students. What will the researcher need to do to insure that the research sample is random?

a.	Ask as many people as possible.
b.	Ask more than one group of people; try to get all the groups in.
c.	Set up the experiment to include a control sample to test the research sample.
d.	Distribute the surveys in a non-biased manner.
e.	Make sure that everyone eligible to participate has an equal chance of being selected.

ANS: E REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Applied

43. Social scientists regard deception of research participants as:

a.	unimportant unless the research participant protests.
b.	only an issue if the participants are children.
c.	a practice to avoid if at all possible.
d.	nothing to worry about.
e.	only an issue if the participants are senior citizens.

ANS: C REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

44. A survey of employed women must include people of different ages. To make sure the results of such a survey are representative of all employed women in the society, you should use which of the following?

a.	a stratified sample
b.	longitudinal data
c.	interviews with union and non-union employees
d.	a sample based on high school placement records
e.	a pure random sample

ANS: A REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Applied

45. Which of the following represents an advantage of social surveys?

a.	There is often a low response rate.
b.	The laboratory setting creates an artificial social environment.
c.	Findings are open to interpretation and can support researcher bias.
d.	Data can be quantified and comparisons between groups can be made.
e.	There is no likelihood of flawed data.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Conceptual

46. A student decided to experiment with what happens when normal expectations are broken. He took some items from another person’s basket and counted them on the floor. He then wrote down how the other person responded. What is the student’s method of finding data?

a.	questionnaire distributed after the research act
b.	observation
c.	action research
d.	scientific small experiment
e.	controlled experiment

ANS: B REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

47. Which of the following represents an advantage of participant observation research?

a.	Questionnaires can be used for large numbers of people.
b.	It is easy to replicate.
c.	Data can be quantified and comparisons made.
d.	It allows people to be observed in their “natural” environments.
e.	There is no likelihood of flawed data.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

48. Which of the following represents an advantage of a secondary analysis?

a.	Questionnaires can be used for large numbers of people.
b.	The laboratory creates an artificial social environment.
c.	It is time-consuming
d.	It saves time and money.
e.	There is no likelihood of flawed data.

ANS: D REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

49. Dr. Tom is doing research about the vampire in American society. What is the first problem he must solve before he selects a research design method?

a.	People have such strong reactions to vampires that an objective index will be hard to write.
b.	Vampires do not exist, so how can this be an empirical study?
c.	Can a big enough selection of cases related to vampires be identified for research?
d.	How many variables are related to vampires?
e.	What is the operational definition of a vampire in this research?

ANS: E REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Applied

50. Searching for the definition of love by comparing cultural definitions helps to:

a.	prevent people from giving false information or the wrong answer.
b.	point the way to the proper sample of lovers for study.
c.	create multiple categories of definitions of the term love that can fit in one study.
d.	call into question whether love actually exists.
e.	establish an empirical definition for research.

ANS: E REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Applied

TRUE/FALSE

1. Longitudinal research investigates characteristics of a population over time.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Conceptual

2. Secondary data analysis is used when the researcher has collected data for the second time.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

3. The researcher engaged in secondary data analysis may use the same data for a new study and a different purpose.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

4. The first step in the research process is to develop one or more hypotheses.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1

MSC: Factual

5. Random sampling is a technique where a random number of people are selected from any size group by a researcher in a particular geographic location.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Conceptual

6. Independent and dependent variables are found in statements of causality; however, they are not necessary for statements of association.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Conceptual

7. A dependent variable changes in response to changes in the independent variable.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Factual

8. In the hypothesis "poverty produces low self-esteem," poverty is the dependent variable.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3

MSC: Applied

9. Researcher bias is the tendency to select data that supports the researcher’s hypothesis.

ANS: T REF: Objectivity in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.8 MSC: Factual

10. An open-ended interview is often more flexible than other forms of survey data because the format can be varied, changed, or modified while it is in progress.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Conceptual

11. Internet researchers do not need to follow the same guidelines for protecting human subjects because everything is virtual.

ANS: F REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

12. Participant observers attempt to get to know as much as possible about all members of the group being studied.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Conceptual

13. Representative samples have strong advantages over many other forms of sampling in allowing researchers to generalize their findings to larger populations of people they are studying.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Conceptual

14. The way to ensure that a sample is representative of the population being studied is to try to incorporate as many members of the population as possible.

ANS: F REF: The Sociological Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Conceptual

15. In a random sample, every element sampled has an equal chance of being either selected or not selected.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.4

MSC: Factual

16. The ethical research guidelines regulate Internet-based surveys because they are so popular.

ANS: F REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Applied

17. Blind investigations are a standard method for dealing with researcher bias.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Conceptual

18. After starting a research project and gaining consent from your subjects, you discover that the machine you are using to project social party sounds for interpretation can damage the subjects’ hearing. You must stop the study right away.

ANS: T REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Applied

19. If only information that supports the research hypothesis is published, researcher bias has occurred.

ANS: T REF: Objectivity in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.8 MSC: Conceptual

20. During a double-blind investigation, both the investigators and their subjects are unaware of the hypothesis being tested.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

21. The mean, or average, becomes a valuable measure of central tendency when the data include extreme figures or scores.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Conceptual

22. The median is the number that occurs most often in a data set.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.6

MSC: Factual

23. The mode is the number that occurs most often in a data set.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

24. A discovery made by accident and not accounted for in the original research design must be placed aside and not reported. This protects the integrity of the original design.

ANS: F REF: Objectivity in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.8 MSC: Applied

25. Row and column labels tell you exactly what information is contained in a table.

ANS: T REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.7

MSC: Factual

26. It is acceptable to hide the purpose of your study from potential subjects if they will give you more information that way.

ANS: F REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Conceptual

27. Research is reliable when the same technique produces the same results on a consistent basis.

ANS: T REF: 42 OBJ: 2.2 MSC: Conceptual

28. Current federal regulations require that social researchers obtain informed consent from people who volunteer to be part of a research project.

ANS: T REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

29. Once informed consent is given, a volunteer subject cannot withdraw from the study.

ANS: F REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

30. Secondary analysis cannot be used as the basis for a longitudinal study.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Factual

31. Secondary analysis is appropriate for contemporary investigations; however, it is almost useless for collecting historical or longitudinal data.

ANS: F REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2

MSC: Applied

32. Earlier research studies that did not follow the regulations to protect human subjects may have documented important findings, but these studies cannot be repeated.

ANS: T REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

33. The protection of human subjects is an ethical ideal that we can strive for but never achieve.

ANS: F REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

OBJ: 2.9 MSC: Factual

ESSAY

1. Outline and discuss the seven basic steps in the research process.

ANS:

Not Provided

REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.1 MSC: Factual

2. Outline and discuss the four major categories of research methods. Discuss the major strengths and weaknesses of each.

ANS:

Not Provided

REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2 MSC: Factual

3. Outline and discuss the steps to follow in reading and interpreting a table in a research study.

ANS:

Not Provided

REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.7 MSC: Factual

4. Using your reading as a guide, write a question about a possible relationship between two research variables. Define the independent and dependent variables. What is the possible relationship between the two?

ANS:

Not Provided

REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.3 MSC: Applied

5. Outline the three regulations for the protection of human subjects prescribed by the federal government and discuss how each regulation contributes to protection of individuals in groups.

ANS:

Not Provided

REF: Ethical Issues in Sociological Research OBJ: 2.9

MSC: Applied

6. Describe a group or issue you are interested in investigating. Which research methods would be appropriate to use in your study of the group? How would you select or identify people as participants for your study? Be sure you identify the level and type of methods, and why the strengths and weaknesses of each method make sense as a best choice for your study.

ANS:

Not Provided.

REF: The Research Process OBJ: 2.2 MSC: Applied

 

CHAPTER TWO: Doing Sociology: Research Methods

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Explain the steps in the sociological research process.

2. Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the various research designs.

3. Know what independent and dependent variables are.

4. Know what sampling is and how to create a representative sample.

5. Recognize researcher bias and how it can invalidate a study.

6. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the various measures of central tendency.

7. Read and understand the contents of a table.

8. Explain the concepts of reliability and validity.

9. Understand the problems of objectivity and ethical issues that arise in sociological research

CHAPTER OUTLINE

I. The Research Process

A. Define the Problem

B. Review Previous Research

C. Develop One or More Hypothesis

D. Determine the Research Design

1. Survey

2. Interview

3. Participant Observation

4. Secondary Analysis

E. Define the Sample and Collect data

1. Sample

2. Sampling Error

3. Stratified Random Sample

F. Researcher Bias

G. Analyze the Data and Draw Conclusions

H. Prepare the Research Report

II. Objectivity in Social Research

III. Ethical Issues in Sociological Research

A. Sociology in Strange Places

IV. Summary

KEY CONCEPTS

research process: a sequence of steps when designing a research project; involves defining the problem, reviewing previous research on the topic, developing one or more hypotheses, determining the research design, defining the sample and collecting data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and preparing the research report.

empirical question: a question that can be answered by observing and analyzing the world as it is known.

operational definition: a definition of an abstract concept in terms of the observable features that describe the thing being investigated.

hypothesis: a testable statement about the relationships between two or more empirical variables.

variable: anything that can change (vary).

statement of causality: a declaration that something brings about, influences, or changes something else.

statement of association: a declaration that changes in one thing are related to changes in another, but that one does not necessarily cause the other.

independent variable: a factor that causes or changes another variable.

dependent variable: a factor that is influenced by the independent variable.

survey: a research method in which a population, or a portion thereof, is questioned in order to reveal specific facts about itself.

cross-sectional study: a study that cuts across a population at a given time.

longitudinal research: research that investigates a population over a period of time.

interview: a conversation between two (or occasionally more) individuals in which one party attempts to gain information from the other(s) by asking a series of questions.

structured interview: a research interview entirely predetermined by a questionnaire (or so-called interview schedule) that is followed rigidly.

semi-structured or open-ended interview: a form of research conversation in which the investigator asks a list of questions but is free to vary them or even to make up new questions on topics that take on importance in the course of the interview.

participant observation: researchers entering into a group’s activities and observing the group members.

experiment: an investigation in which the variables being studied are controlled and the researcher obtains the results through precise observation and measurement.

secondary analysis: the process of using data that has been collected by others.

sample: the particular subset of the population chosen for study.

sampling: a research technique through which investigators study a manageable number of people, known as the sample, selected from a larger population or group.

representative sample: a sample that shows, in equivalent proportion, the significant variables that characterize the population as a whole.

sampling error: the failure to achieve a representative sample.

random sample: technique of selecting subjects so that each individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

stratified random sample: a method to prevent certain groups from being under- ­or over-represented in a sample.

researcher bias: the tendency for researchers to select data that support, and to ignore data that seem to go against, their hypotheses.

blind investigators: investigators who do not know whether a specific subject belongs to the group of actual cases being investigated or to a comparison group.

double-blind investigators: investigators who are kept uninformed not only of the kinds of subjects (case subjects or comparison group subjects) they are studying but also of the hypotheses being tested.

analysis: the process through which large and complicated collections of scientific data are organized so that comparisons can be made and conclusions drawn.

validity: the extent to which a study tests what it was intended to test.

reliability: the extent to which the findings of a study are repeatable.

LECTURE AND CLASSROOM SUGGESTIONS

1. The Research Process. Choose a research study with which you are familiar. Select a topic you believe will appeal to students and follow it through each of the steps of the research process. You may want to construct a flowchart to emphasis the decisions and tradeoffs that are made at each step of the process. A handout that can be used to reinforce the information on the research process may be found in the Resources section at the end of this chapter. It is important to convey to students the contingent nature of research.

2. Students and the Research Process. After you have modeled the process for students, see if they can do it. Have the class agree on a particular problem they want to know more about. Then have them generate hypotheses, think about measurement and research design, etc. (If your class is a large lecture one, this activity can be done in small groups as well. Just allow more organization time as well as time for them to get together, as there will be more time conflicts with greater numbers of participants.)

3. Sociologists as Detectives. Tischler suggests in his introduction to the research process that sociological research and detective work have a lot in common. Use this metaphor to model the research process. You may want to draw explicitly on famous detectives from literature, film, or television. Not only does this make for a lively class, but also it connects sociological knowledge to things the students already know. Whenever you can make this kind of connection, you are engaged in a proven effective teaching and learning technique.

4. Researcher Bias. Discuss the phenomenon of the self-fulfilling prophecy, showing both how it introduces biases into research and how it can be controlled through techniques like random selection and blind and double-blind investigations. Pose situations to the class in which a researcher's objectivity may potentially be compromised even for laudable reasons (e.g., wanting desperately to find a cure for AIDS, desiring to find a magnitude and seriousness in the problem of homelessness such that politicians will be forced to take action, etc.).

5. Ethical Issues in Research. Pose some ethical dilemmas in research to the class; it usually is not hard to get a lively discussion going on this issue. The Tuskegee Experiment or Laud Humphrey's famous study are good discussion materials. Also, you may want to talk about the problem of reactive effects and efforts to research humans in a naturalistic setting. Given that the technology of "snooping" is highly advanced today, how far can we justifiably go in invading people's privacy, even in public places? Even when this invasion generates highly reliable data about people's social behavior?

STUDENT ACTIVITIES

1. Operational Definitions in Research. The first problem in research design is to define what it is you seek to measure or find information about from the people you will use in a sample. Tischler discusses the challenge of defining love. Here are some thinking exercises for small groups of students.

How would you study vampires and their impact on American society? What kinds of data would you use? What is empirical about the study? Define a vampire or a range of vampires that you would include in your investigation. Take this cultural studies exercise seriously. Students can later do a content analysis of media portraying vampires. Do vampires in the content analysis represent something else in our society, such as gender roles, problems in relationships, generational experiences, or life passages? You can replace vampires with zombies or other cultural products of imagination, such as romatic love or perfect sex.

2. Decoding Popular Presentations of Research. Review Tischler's “How to Spot a Bogus Poll.” Find relatively detailed presentations of social research findings in newspapers and magazines. Copy and pass this information out to the class after you have covered the research process. Then have the students go through it (collectively, in small groups, or individually as a writing assignment) and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the research along each step of the process. This experience makes them far more critical consumers of social science data.

3. Generating Hypotheses. Prepare in advance a number of lists of variables that may indeed be related, but do not indicate that relationship— simply list the variables. In class, divide students into groups and give each group a list of variables. Ask them to generate hypotheses around this list. They should be encouraged to begin by brainstorming—no idea is too wild or far out to be listed. This usually gets their creativity moving, particularly if you encourage consideration of virtually all hypotheses regardless of how farfetched they might seem initially.

4. Evaluating Research Designs. Pose a hypothesis to the students (or have them come up with one) and then, in small groups, have them discuss and write up how they would research the identical hypothesis using each of the three designs presented by in the text.

5. Representative Samples and Sampling Bias. Bring in examples of research reported in newspapers and magazines. Copy and pass it out to students. Then ask them to evaluate (possibly as a writing assignment) the representativeness of the samples used. Be sure you have some reasonably good as well as trashy examples. In the class discussion, make sure that students become aware of the whole range of possible biases (e.g., response rates and reactive effects of mail vs. phone vs. in person interviews). Give students as many examples and as much practice as possible in evaluating samples and thinking about how to ensure randomness.

6. Reading Tables. Copy one or more data tables of interest and hand them out to the class. Good sources of tables include the Current Population Reports from the U.S. Census and the Monthly Labor Review, which includes data on employment and income. As a writing assignment and/or in small groups, have the students analyze the data according to the criteria laid out by Tischler in “How to Read a Table.” Another possibility is to ask students to generate hypotheses that are capable of being tested with the data you have given them. This is a pretty sophisticated application of knowledge and skills. If you use table analysis as a writing assignment, it is a good candidate for peer critique. Have students read each other's papers and give feedback on whether the table is summarized and analyzed clearly and accurately. This provides an alternate method for learning and reinforcing the necessary skill of table reading.

INTERNET ACTIVITIES

General Social Survey

http://www3.norc.org/GSS+Website/

The General Social Survey is one of the best research resources for longterm trends in U.S. society. Since 1972, the GSS has been one of the most frequent sources of variable survey data in social science. Secondary research reports are available, as well as code books and data sets for primary research. Have students explore relationships between variables using the GSS. Even a 100-level course without statistical background can learn about how variables are defined and how the research process is reported after a study.

Paula England Offers Data on Hook Up Culture – Sociological Images

http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/02/15/paula-england-offers-data-on-hook-up-culture/

Watch Paula England’s summary of her research on contemporary sex seeking hook ups. Have your students design a survey to discover student behavior and beliefs about dating that you can deliver over the Internet. Use a free survey application from the Internet to deliver the survey by email to the class. Ask student organizations if they would participate and distribute the survey to their members.What is sex? As Dr. England from Stanford showed, how students interpret what hooking up means and what actually happens in a hook up may vary from person to person and between genders. The definition of sex has recently come to debate in states such as North Carolina where only married couples are legally entitled to have consensual sex with privacy guaranteed. Single people may still be committing a code violation. Some people do not believe that oral sex or manual stimulation “counts” as full sex. Research debates over how to define sex. Write a definition and description for a research study. Jason Young and Paula England have published a classroom aid, The Media Education Foundation Study Guide, Understanding Hook Up Culture that is available online. Your students can locate it by title through Google.

The U.S. Government’s Official Web Portal

http://www.usa.gov/

Émile Durkheim based his famous theories about suicide on data from the French Census. Explore secondary research sources for data about social science under the Topics tab on usa.gov. Have each student find a government website that organizes access to secondary data. Students can write a summary paragraph about the kind of research data that is available. Include the definition of the topic, description of charts, type of data, how it is reported, by what rate or category, and the number of cases in the survey. The class can post their findings on a class blog, wiki, or list.

RESOURCES

Earl R. Babbie. The Practice of Social Research, 13^th ed. Wadsworth, 2013.

The most widely used and cited textbook for sociological methods in the United States.

Norman K. Denzin and Yvopnna S. Lincoln (eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, 4 ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2011.

Often instructors devote more time to quantitative research as opposed to qualitative varieties. This classic anthology contains more than three dozen articles ranging from ethical issues in research to the techniques of observation